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Njals Saga
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Themes
Prophecy and Fate
The characters in Njal’s Saga believe in prophetic utterances that are sometimes conveyed to them via supernatural occurrences, including visions and dreams. Multiple protagonists have the gift of prophecy. An example of prophetic skill appears at the very opening of the saga, when Hrut predicts that his niece, Hallgerd, will grow up to cause much strife; later, her feud with Njal’s wife, Bergthora, becomes central to the first half of the saga as it leads to many deaths.
The titular character, Njal, is widely known for his gift of prophecy; his predictions always come true. For instance, Njal prophesizes that his foster son, Hoskuld Thrainsson, will grow to be a good and honorable man. This revelation proves true and is highlighted in Hoskuld’s final moments, when Hoskuld faces his death with courage, refusing to run away or fight back against the Njalssons, whom he loves. Instead, he drops to his knees, mirroring the act of prayer, and calls for God’s help and forgiveness for his killers. The way he chooses to die mimics the Christian martyrs in medieval hagiographic tradition, which emphasizes his virtuous nature, showing that Njal’s prediction comes true.
However, despite the accuracy of Njal’s prophecies, the characters in the saga do not always observe the warnings that accompany them or take steps to change the outcomes of the events Njal foresees. Njal functions as a cautionary but oft-ignored figure whose wisdom, though admired, fails to save those around him. For example, Gunnar ultimately disregards Njal’s warning that if he kills twice within the same bloodline and breaks the settlement resulting in his exile, he will die. Gunnar repeatedly tells Njal that he will not fulfill the prophecy, yet he inexplicably does so after being thrown from his horse and dazedly admiring the Icelandic countryside when he is set to go abroad. His return to Hlidarendi causes his enemies to besiege him at home, and despite his valiant efforts, he is slain. Njal, too, does not attempt to challenge his own fate. He foresees his own horrific death by burning years in advance; he also envisions that the gable-walls are gone and that his table is drenched in blood on the night of the burning. Yet, he remains in his burning home when Flosi offers him an escape. His acceptance of his fate turns him into a heroic and saint-like figure. His body is unscathed and “radiant” when he is recovered, like medieval descriptions of uncorrupted bodies of saints. Indeed, the author credits Njal with facilitating Iceland’s conversion to Christianity, making him a sacrificial martyr much like his beloved foster son, Hoskuld.
In this way, Njal’s Saga shows that while the characters place great faith in prophecies, they also believe that there is little they can do to change their destinies. While the prophecies show them their futures, they do not attempt to change what is coming. Skarphedin, for example, remarks that he will do nothing about the chickweed around Bergthorshvol because fate cannot change, even though the elderly Saeunn foresees its role in the town’s burning. Similarly, Hildiglum sees a flaming “witch-ride” shortly before the burning, forecasting the horrific events to come. Though prophecies in the saga accurately indicate future events, characters have no power over the outcomes; their fates are unchangeable.
Medieval Icelandic Legalism
In the Introduction to Njal’s Saga, the translator Robert Cook remarks that “[m]ore than any other family saga, Njal’s Saga is about law” (xxiii). The saga provides detailed descriptions of Icelandic law and legal procedures, focusing on the legalistic nature of medieval Icelandic society.
The saga’s emphasis on legalism is evident in the way it introduces many of its characters: It highlights their legal skills. For example, the first character, Mord Gigia, is described as “a powerful chieftain [who is] strong in pressing lawsuits” (3). The titular character, Njal, is introduced as being “so well versed in the law that he had no equal” (35). Similarly, Njal’s foster son, Thorhall, is described as having “learned the law from Njal so well that he was one of the three greatest lawyers in Iceland” (187). These character descriptions depict legal prowess as a positive character trait, indicating that medieval Icelandic society placed great emphasis in the power of the law.
The decentralized nature of Medieval Icelandic government necessitated legal cooperation among its citizens. It was a loosely organized commonwealth, and the overarching judicial and legislative body, the Althing, was the site of legal trials. From its settlement in the 900s until the mid-13th century, medieval Iceland had a common legal code. The chieftains established this code, divided the country into four districts, established regional assemblies, and formed the Althing, where they sat on the Law Council. This law code was based on Norwegian law and memorized and recited by the lawspeaker at the Althing. The lawspeaker was responsible for clarifying the code and was assisted by the chieftains. The Althing was also the high court where, as Njal’s Saga indicates, medieval Icelanders resolved disputes, including blood feuds. For example, across multiple Althings, Njal and Gunnar reach settlements over the slaying of various members of their households because of their wives’ feuding. When cooperation at the Althing broke down, it led to chaos and violence. For instance, when the burners are charged at the Althing in the latter half of the saga, they attempt to manipulate procedure, which causes a judicial breakdown and the Battle of the Althing.
However, there was no formal mechanism by which the Icelanders could truly enforce their law code, which bred the violence and retaliation depicted throughout Njal’s Saga. Most of the central conflicts in the saga are decided through violence and not the legal system, juxtaposing the saga’s emphasis on law with the Scandinavian tradition of blood feuding. Characters’ unwillingness to stick to settlements lead to their demise, like when Gunnar refuses to go abroad and is thus slain, or when Flosi insults Njal’s manliness just as he is approaching a settlement for Hoskuld the Godi’s slaying. This breakdown in legal matters leads directly to the burning at Bergthorshvol since Flosi has no other means to achieve justice. Yet, he also commits one of the most monstrous crimes, which Gunnar’s attackers refused to even consider. Flosi and his companions not only commit a grievous crime but, perhaps more significantly, they commit an atrocious sin and breach established social standards for which they are forced to pay, most of them with their lives. Due to the extent of this violence, Cook argues in the Introduction that the saga proves Icelandic law both complex and futile.
Ideals of Masculinity and Honor
Njal’s Saga creates an ethical code of hegemonic masculinity characterized by qualities like bravery, strength, sexual prowess, and intelligence. Characters who possess these qualities, like Njal and Gunnar of Hlidarendi, are described as being worthy of great respect.
In the saga, characters’ enemies employ these stereotypes of hegemonic masculinity as weapons, often disparaging their opponent’s manliness with cutting words in order to instigate arguments and misunderstandings. Men and women engage in such tactics, like when Hallgerd mocks Njal for his lack of a beard, angering Gunnar. She also berates Gunnar for being unmanly when he refuses to defend her when she argues with Bergthora. Similarly, Gunnhild also attacks Hrut’s masculinity when she casts a spell that will prevent him from having sexual relations with his wife, Unn, in retaliation for his lying. This curse eventually leads to Unn divorcing Hrut, which further humiliates him. In another example, Flosi attacks Grani Gunnarsson’s manliness when he reprimands him for not acting against the Njalssons when he had the chance. Also, Mord’s father, Valgard, chastises him for being unmanly, forcing him to prove himself by implementing his father’s wicked plot to destroy the Njalssons.
Male characters are often called to prove their masculinity through violence, as Mord’s case demonstrates. Indeed, one of the central heroic figures, Gunnar, questions his own masculinity when he comments that he takes less pleasure in killing when compared to other men. Also, Kari’s companion, Bjorn, appears as a shrewd but weak figure, emasculated by his wife’s criticisms. However, through his friendship with the more masculine Kari, Bjorn proves himself a “true man,” according to Icelandic standards. When Kari leaves Bjorn under Thorgeir’s protection, he is described as being “much more of a man than before” (294).
However, the saga’s narrator proposes alternate, admirable masculine traits—like honor, forgiveness, and self-restraint—that challenge the old order and are shown to be in tension with stereotypes of masculinity. Njal, for example, takes the dishonorable nickname “Old Beardless” in stride, never growing enraged or seeking retaliation for a bruised ego. His son, Skarphedin, however, cannot abide such criticism. Flosi employs this insult at the settlement meeting over Hoskuld Thorgeirsson’s murder, ending negotiations and dooming the Njalssons and himself. Likewise, Hoskuld Thrainsson, Njal’s foster son, does not believe Mord Valgardsson’s lies about the Njalssons and dies honorably without fighting back. While the failure to fight might be characterized as an unmanly weakness if he were to be judged by the stereotypes of masculinity, in Hoskuld’s case, it is a strength since it is proof of his honor while the Njalssons have committed the dishonorable act. Similarly, Hall of Sida reconceptualizes masculinity and honor when he tries to stop the violence at the Althing, knowing he “might be blamed for this by some people” (272); he also publicly refuses compensation for his son’s murder after the Battle of the Althing. He crafts a new ideal of masculinity and honor centered on humility, forgiveness, and peace, for which he garners praise.
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