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Metaphysics
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BetaBooks 5-7Chapter Summaries & Analyses
Book 5 Summary: “Delta”
Book Delta serves as a philosophical dictionary, concluding the preliminary sections of Metaphysics. It prepares the reader for the upcoming exploration of being and substance by defining around 30 key terms. These definitions vary in length and detail, with some being extensive philosophical essays and others mere notes. The book’s aim is to clarify Aristotle’s arguments, offering a conceptual apparatus to understand discussions about being and substance.
Principle/Start: Aristotle explores different notions of “beginning” or “start.” For example, he discusses the start of a line or a process, the best starting point for production or understanding (such as starting a study not from its primary principle but from where it is easiest to begin), and the intrinsic parts from which something is primarily produced, like the keel of a ship or the foundation of a house. He notes, “That by whose choice processes and changes are initiated” as another definition of a principle or start (114).
Cause: Aristotle looks into various kinds of causes: material cause (like bronze being the cause of a statue), formal cause (the design or plan), the source of change (like a parent being the cause of a child), and the cause as an end (the purpose or final goal of an action). He emphasizes that these causes are not accidental and can be reciprocal.
Element: Elements are described as primary intrinsic components, not further divisible into other species. Aristotle uses examples from speech, bodies, and geometrical proofs to explain this concept.
Nature: Nature is explored in its different aspects: as the intrinsic source of growth, the primary material of natural beings, and the substance of things with natural being. Aristotle provides examples like bronze for a bronze statue or wood for wooden objects, and he quotes Empedocles on the nature of things.
Necessary: The term “necessary” is analyzed in several contexts, such as a causal contributor essential for life (like respiration for animals) and conditions needed for good to exist or evil to be removed.
One: Aristotle discusses the concept of unity in different forms, such as numerical, formal, generic, and by analogy. He explores how unity applies to substances, quantities, and processes.
Being: Being is examined in terms of accidental and per se being, with Aristotle noting the different ways something can “be.” He addresses the concept of truth in relation to being, stating that “to assert that Socrates is musical is to assert that it is true that Socrates is musical” (126).
Substance: Aristotle describes substance in various ways, including simple bodies (like earth, fire, water), the soul as the cause of being for an animal, and the what-it-was-to-be-that-thing of an object.
Identity: The idea of identity is explored, both in accidental and per se forms. Aristotle considers how things can be the same in substance, matter, or account.
Opposite, Contrary, and Other Categories: Aristotle defines opposites, contraries, and other categories like quantity, quality, relation, complete, limit, disposition, and accident, providing examples and explanations for each.
Throughout Book Delta, Aristotle provides a comprehensive survey of essential philosophical concepts, defining and discussing them in detail. These definitions lay the groundwork for understanding the more complex arguments presented in later books of Metaphysics.
Book 6 Summary: “Epsilon”
Lawson-Tancred introduces Book Epsilon as a continuation of Aristotle’s exploration of philosophy’s scope, distinguishing it from departmental sciences. He emphasizes that philosophy is concerned with being as a whole, including proving the existence of its subject matter, unlike specialized sciences that take their domains for granted. Lawson-Tancred outlines Aristotle’s categorization of theoretical sciences into physics, mathematics, and theology (or First Philosophy), the latter dealing with entities immune to change and movement.
The Scope of Philosophy: Aristotle reiterates that philosophy encompasses all of being, unlike departmental sciences. He distinguishes between practical, productive, and theoretical sciences, positioning theology (or First Philosophy) as the highest science, concerned with unchangeable, separate entities. He argues that the highest substance is the cause and principle of all being, making it the primary focus of philosophy.
The Role of Other Sciences: Aristotle explains that other sciences focus on specific domains and do not address the essence of being. They start with hypotheses or sensory perceptions and provide demonstrations of attributes specific to their fields. However, these sciences do not typically question the existence of their subject matter.
Substance and Definitions: Emphasizing the importance of defining “being,” Aristotle discusses “snub-type” and “concave-type” entities. Snub-type entities are defined with matter, whereas concave-types, like concavity itself, do not involve perceptible matter. This distinction is crucial for understanding natural entities, which are typically given snub-type definitions.
Theoretical Sciences: Aristotle asserts that natural science is theoretical but concerns entities that undergo change and are not separable from matter. He raises questions about the nature of mathematical entities and proposes the existence of a more fundamental science that studies eternal, unchanging entities, a field he identifies as First Philosophy or Theology.
First Philosophy’s Domain: Aristotle explores whether First Philosophy is universal or focuses on a specific nature. He concludes that it is universal and the most fundamental science, addressing the essence of being and its properties.
Accidental Being: Aristotle defines accidental being as entities that exist sometimes but not always or necessarily. He explains that their causation is material and random, falling outside the realm of scientific study.
Accidental Causation: Exploring accidental causal chains, Aristotle notes that such chains include a fortuitous link, where occurrence is not necessary. He discusses the necessity of certain events and the role of chance in accidental causation.
Being as Truth: Aristotle briefly addresses being as truth, noting it pertains to mental associations rather than real-world entities. He states that truth and falsity arise in thinking, not in simple states or essences.
Book Epsilon examines the distinctions between philosophy and specialized sciences, the nature of theoretical sciences, and the investigation of being, especially focusing on substance, accidental being, and being as truth. This book sets the stage for deeper exploration of substance in Aristotle’s later works.
Book 6 Summary: “Epsilon”
Lawson-Tancred introduces Book Epsilon as a continuation of Aristotle’s exploration of philosophy’s scope, distinguishing it from departmental sciences. He emphasizes that philosophy is concerned with being as a whole, including proving the existence of its subject matter, unlike specialized sciences that take their domains for granted. Lawson-Tancred outlines Aristotle’s categorization of theoretical sciences into physics, mathematics, and theology (or First Philosophy), the latter dealing with entities immune to change and movement.
The Scope of Philosophy: Aristotle reiterates that philosophy encompasses all of being, unlike departmental sciences. He distinguishes between practical, productive, and theoretical sciences, positioning theology (or First Philosophy) as the highest science, concerned with unchangeable, separate entities. He argues that the highest substance is the cause and principle of all being, making it the primary focus of philosophy.
The Role of Other Sciences: Aristotle explains that other sciences focus on specific domains and do not address the essence of being. They start with hypotheses or sensory perceptions and provide demonstrations of attributes specific to their fields. However, these sciences do not typically question the existence of their subject matter.
Substance and Definitions: Emphasizing the importance of defining “being,” Aristotle discusses “snub-type” and “concave-type” entities. Snub-type entities are defined with matter, whereas concave-types, like concavity itself, do not involve perceptible matter. This distinction is crucial for understanding natural entities, which are typically given snub-type definitions.
Theoretical Sciences: Aristotle asserts that natural science is theoretical but concerns entities that undergo change and are not separable from matter. He raises questions about the nature of mathematical entities and proposes the existence of a more fundamental science that studies eternal, unchanging entities, a field he identifies as First Philosophy or Theology.
First Philosophy’s Domain: Aristotle explores whether First Philosophy is universal or focuses on a specific nature. He concludes that it is universal and the most fundamental science, addressing the essence of being and its properties.
Accidental Being: Aristotle defines accidental being as entities that exist sometimes but not always or necessarily. He explains that their causation is material and random, falling outside the realm of scientific study.
Accidental Causation: Exploring accidental causal chains, Aristotle notes that such chains include a fortuitous link, where occurrence is not necessary. He discusses the necessity of certain events and the role of chance in accidental causation.
Being as Truth: Aristotle briefly addresses being as truth, noting it pertains to mental associations rather than real-world entities. He states that truth and falsity arise in thinking, not in simple states or essences.
Book Epsilon examines the distinctions between philosophy and specialized sciences, the nature of theoretical sciences, and the investigation of being, especially focusing on substance, accidental being, and being as truth. This book sets the stage for deeper exploration of substance in Aristotle’s later works.
Book 7 Summary: “Zeta”
Lawson-Tancred’s introduction to this book emphasizes the philosophical journey undertaken in previous books and establishes the central theme of Book Zeta: understanding “being,” with a particular focus on “substance.” Lawson-Tancred highlights the shift from a broad contemplation of being to a more concentrated analysis of substance, underscoring its fundamental importance in Aristotle’s thought. The aim is to replace the general inquiry about being with a more precise investigation of what constitutes substance, a concept pivotal in both the Metaphysics and the “Categories.”
Aristotle begins by exploring the subject of “being” and its fundamental nature, focusing on the concept of substance (ousia). He examines how substance relates to other categories of being and its role as a primary form of existence.
ZETA 1-3: Aristotle states that understanding being is the core task of philosophy, emphasizing the primary role of substance. He argues that substance is primary in every respect, in definition, in knowledge, and in time. The focus then shifts to the question of what substance is, exploring it in relation to causes and principles.
ZETA 4-6: Here, Aristotle further develops the idea of essence as central to understanding substance. He argues the essence of a thing is its fundamental nature, encapsulated in its definition. This leads to a detailed discussion of how substances, as essences, can be defined, highlighting the crucial role of species in defining substances.
ZETA 7-9: These chapters offer a treatise on the concept of form, tying it to essence and species, and stressing that form is not created. Aristotle argues for the intrinsic unity of the species, which further solidifies his assertion that species, as forms, are primary substances.
ZETA 10-12: Aristotle discusses the nature and limits of definition, focusing on how definitions must reflect the unity of the substance they describe. He critically examines the idea that definitions can be formed by combining different elements (genus and differentia), reinforcing his view that a true definition captures the unity of a substance.
ZETA 13-15: In these chapters, Aristotle critiques the Platonic Forms, challenging the notion that universals (common properties shared by different entities) can be substances. He argues that universals cannot be substances as they lack the unique, individual nature essential to substance.
ZETA 16: Aristotle reiterates that species are primary substances and rejects the idea of universals or forms as separate entities. He dismisses categories like “Being” or “One” as substances, emphasizing that substances are specific and individual.
ZETA 17: The final chapter suggests substance is a cause or principle of being. Aristotle argues that substances, in their essence, have an explanatory role, being the foundation of both existence and our understanding of it.
Throughout Book Zeta, Aristotle systematically builds a conception of substance as the essence of a thing, distinct from and more fundamental than its material components or universal properties. This exploration forms a cornerstone of his metaphysical thought, influencing subsequent philosophical discourse on the nature of reality and existence.
Books 5-7 Analysis
Aristotle deepens his exploration into fundamental philosophical concepts, establishing a comprehensive framework for understanding the nature of existence and reality. Book Delta functions as a philosophical lexicon, laying the groundwork for Aristotle’s subsequent metaphysical discourse. Here, Aristotle employs a methodical narrative structure, offering clear definitions of critical terms such as “cause,” using everyday examples to ground his metaphysical inquiry in familiar experiences. This method speaks to A Structure of Logic as Integral to Philosophy. His understanding of reality will be based on his logical system, and here he explains his logical system in great detail. He is arguing how the world functions and will later layer understandings upon this foundation.
Moving into Book Zeta, Aristotle’s treatment of “substance” becomes a focal point. He investigates the essence of substance, engaging in analysis to challenge existing notions and propose a more nuanced understanding. This exploration is marked by a progressive narrative, each chapter building upon the last, as Aristotle examines and refutes various conceptions of substance. His approach is exploratory, reflecting his deep engagement with complex philosophical issues. As Lawson-Tancred sums up in his introduction to Book Zeta, “Substance is once again said to be primary, and we are told that it is primary in every respect, in account, in knowledge and in time” (167). This encapsulates Aristotle’s view of substance as the fundamental reality underpinning all other properties and attributes. In Book Epsilon, too, Aristotle outlines the scope and limits of philosophical inquiry, placing First Philosophy, or theology, at the apex of theoretical sciences. This book showcases Aristotle’s argumentative skill and his ability to weave various strands of thought into a cohesive narrative. He underscores the importance of understanding the essence of things, as highlighted in the quote, “It is, however, vital not to overlook the question of what it is to be a thing and the definitional account of how it is what it is. If we leave these out, scientific inquiry is mere shadow boxing” (154). This emphasis on essence and the definitional account of entities underpins his entire philosophical endeavor and links to the theme The Nature of Existence and Reality.
Aristotle’s exploration of actuality (enérgeia) and potentiality (dunamis) in these books is crucial, too, speaking to The Dichotomy and Interplay Between Potentiality and Actuality. He elucidates these concepts as fundamental to the understanding of change and existence. Actuality, in Aristotle’s framework, represents the realized state of an entity, where its potential, inherent in its form and substance, is fully expressed. This actualization is not merely a change but the fulfillment of a thing’s nature and purpose. The transition from potentiality, the inherent capacity for change and development within an entity, to actuality becomes a cornerstone of Aristotelian thought. Aristotle bases his philosophy on this dichotomy of potentiality and actuality. However, it is significant that he focuses on the interplay between these two poles; they are not essential characteristics but inform each other and even sometimes overlap.
The concept of Form (Eidos) is also integral to Aristotle’s analysis in these books. Form, as Aristotle posits, is the organizing principle that endows matter with a specific identity. It transcends physical attributes, embodying the essence of an entity. This exploration of form versus matter is crucial in Aristotle’s philosophical inquiry, where understanding the form of a thing is key to comprehending its substance and essence. Aristotle creates layers of understanding substances, nuancing these notions atop his defined foundation.
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